Engineering Management

EEMT 5510 Homework #5 12-24. An improved design of a computerized piece of continuous quality measuring equipment used to control the thickness of rolled sheet products is being developed. It is estimated to sell for $125,000 more than the current design.Based on present test data, however, the typical user has the following probabilities of achieving different performance results and cost savings (relative to the current unit) in the first year of operation (assume these annual cost savings would escalate 5% per year thereafter; a five-year analysis period is used; the MARR=18%, and the net market value after five years is 0): |Performance Results |Probability |Cost Savings in Year One | |Optimistic |0. 0 |$60,000 | |Most likely |0. 55 |40,000 | |Pessimistic |0. 15 |18,000 | Based on the E(PW), is the new design preferable to the current unit? Based on a decision tree analysis, what is the EVPI? What does the EVPI tell you?Without information, the optimal decision is to take the new design, shown by the decision tree below |scenarios |Year 0 cost |Year 1 Saving |Year2 Saving | | |Results (j) |p(j) |Decision |Outcome | | |Optimistic |0. 30 |New |$79,063 | | |Most Likely |0. 55 |New |11,042 | | |Pessimistic |0. 5 |Current | 0 | | | |Expected Value: |$29,792 | EVPI = $29,792 ? $20,225 = $9,567 Note:The EVPI is the maximum amount that ought to be spent to obtain additional information prior to making a decision. Suggested Exercises 1. A bridge is to be constructed now as part of a new road. An analysis has shown that traffic density on the new road will justify a two-lane bridge at the present time.Because of uncertainty regarding future use of the road, the time at which an extra two lanes will be required is currently being studied. The estimated probabilities of having to widen the bridge to four lanes at various times in the future are as follows: |Widen Bridge In |Probability | |3 years |0. 1 | |4 years |0. 2 | |5 years |0. | |6 years |0. 4 | The present esti mated cost of the two-lane bridge is $2,100,000. If constructed now, the four-lane bridge will cost $4,000,000. The future cost of widening a two-lane bridge will be an extra $2,100,000 plus $350,000 for every year that widening is delayed. If money can earn 12% per year, what would you recommend? Option 1: construct 4 lanes now: PW( cost ) = $4,000,000 Option 2: widen to 4 lanes later with 0. 1 probability,PW( cost ) = 2100000 + (2100000+350000*3)(P/F, 12%, 3) = 4,342,108 with 0. 2 probability, PW( cost ) = 2100000 + (2100000+350000*4)(P/F, 12%, 4) = 4324313 with 0. 3 probability, PW( cost ) = 2100000 + (2100000+350000*5)(P/F, 12%, 5) = 4284593 with 0. 4 probability, PW( cost ) = 2100000 + (2100000+350000*6)(P/F, 12%, 6) = 4227851 Hence the expected PW(cost) = 4,275,592 > 4,000,000 So we recommend constructing 4 lanes now. 2. Suppose that a random variable (e. g. , market value for a piece of equipment) is normally distributed, with mean = $180 and variance = 36$2.What is the proba bility that the actual market value is at least $176? Normally distributed random variable: E(X) = $180, V(X) = 36 ($)2 Pr{X ( 176} = ? Z = [pic] = ? 0. 67 Pr{X ( 176} = Pr{Z ( ? 0. 67} = 1 ? Pr{Z ( ? 0. 67} = 1 ? 0. 2514 = 0. 7486 3. A potential project has an initial capital investment of $100,000. Net annual revenues minus expenses are estimated to be $40,000 (A$) in the first year and to increase at the rate of 6. 48% per year. The useful life of the primary equipment, however, is uncertain, as shown in the following table: Useful Life, Years(N) |p(N) | |1 |0. 03 | |2 |0. 10 | |3 |0. 30 | |4 |0. 30 | |5 |0. 17 | |6 |0. 10 |Assume that im = MARR = 15% per year and f = 4% per year. Based on this information, a. What are the E(PW) and SD(PW) for this project? b. What is the Pr{PW>0}? c. What is the E(AW) in R$? a. |Year N |Profit in Year |PW (Profit in |Total PW (Profit |PW (with investment until |Probability | | |N |Year N) |until Year N) |Year N) | | |1 |40000 |$34,782. 61 |$34,7 82. 61 |($65,217. 39) |0. 03 | |2 |42592 |$32,205. 7 |$66,988. 28 |($33,011. 72) |0. 1 | |3 |45351. 96 |$29,819. 65 |$96,807. 93 |($3,192. 07) |0. 3 | |4 |48290. 77 |$27,610. 40 |$124,418. 33 |$24,418. 33 |0. 3 | |5 |51420. 01 |$25,564. 83 |$149,983. 17 |$49,983. 17 |0. 17 | |6 |54752. 03 |$23,670. 81 |$173,653. 98 |$73,653. 98 |0. 1 |E[ PW ] = 16972,Var[PW] = 1097641387 SD[PW] = 33130 (Standard deviation is the square root of Var) b. Prob{ PW>0 } = 0. 3+0. 17+0. 1 = 0. 57 Note: This is a discrete random variable with known distribution. So we do not use the normal distribution table. c. Since f=4%, we have real MARR, ir = (15%-4%)/(1+4%) = 10. 577% use the equation:AWr (until Year N) = PW (until Year N) (A/P, 10. 577%, N) AWr(1) = (72115), AWr(2) = (19168), AWr(3) = (1296), AWr(4) = 7799, AWr (5)=13380, AWr (6) = 17198, so E[AWr] = 1865 The project is questionable though E[PW]>0. The probability of PW

Pragmatism and teachers role Essay

Pragmatism is an American philosophy from the early 20th century. According to Pragmatism, the truth or meaning of an idea or a proposition lies in its observable practical consequences rather than anything metaphysical. It can be summarized by the phrase â€Å"whatever works, is likely true.† Because reality changes, â€Å"whatever works† will also change — thus, truth must also be changeable and no one can claim to possess any final or ultimate truth. C.S. Peirce on Pragmatism: C.S. Peirce, who coined the term Pragmatism, saw it as more a technique to help us find solutions than a philosophy or solution to problems. Peirce used it as a means for developing linguistic and conceptual clarity (and thereby facilitate communication) with intellectual problems. He wrote: â€Å"Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object.† William James on Pragmatism: William James is the most famous philosopher of Pragmatism and he’s the one who made Pragmatism itself famous. For James, Pragmatism was about value and morality: the purpose of philosophy was to understand what had value to us and why. James argued that ideas and beliefs have value to us only when they work. James wrote on Pragmatism: â€Å"Ideas become true just so far as they help us to get into satisfactory relations with other parts of our experience.† John Dewey on Pragmatism: In a philosophy he called Instrumentalism, John Dewey attempted to combine both Perice’s and James’ philosophies of Pragmatism. It was thus both about logical concepts as well as ethical analysis. Instrumentalism describes Dewey’s ideas the conditions under which reasoning and inquiry occurs. On the one hand it should be controlled by logical constraints; on the other hand it is directed at producing goods and valued satisfactions. What is the Role of a Teacher According to Pragmatism? According to pragmatism teacher is a friend, guide and philosopher to the child. He must educate the child in social environment so that he may attain social efficiency. There must be positive relationship between teacher and taught. His behavior towards children must be sympathetic. His attitude should be democratic and child must have academic freedom. His function is to suggest problems to his pupils and to stimulate them to find for themselves solutions which will work. His emphasis is not on the knowledge as arranged and systematized in the text-books. He wants the children to do one experiment or to have a particular experience. ‘Doing’ is more important than knowing. Like Socrates the Pragmatist teacher wants â€Å"his pupils to think and act for them, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat.† Pragmatism and School John Dewey maintains that school is a ‘Miniature Society’ here a child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interests, aptitudes and capacities. Pragmatists regard school as a social institution where the child gains real experiences of actual life which develop in him social sense and a sense of duty towards society and the nation. Group games, working in laboratories and studying in libraries with others are the various activities and experiences which inculcate in children social qualities, social attitudes together with a spirit of mutual help and cooperative activities. In this way, according to Pragmatism the school is not a centre of education alone but it is also a community centre of various activities and experiences. Contribution of Pragmatism in Education Aims It lays more stress on social and vocational efficiency. Teacher It gives important place to teacher. Student It stresses on child-centered education. Teaching Method New teaching methods are the contribution of pragmatism. Curriculum It lays more stress on experience and learning by doing. Evaluation of Pragmatism Opposition of Pre-determined Ideas Pragmatism opposes pre-determined ideals and values. They are man-made and change according to the changes in circumstances, time and place. Opposition of Eternal Truth Pragmatism does not have any faith in eternal truth. Pragmatists believe that if the result of an activity is satisfactory then it is true otherwise not. No Fix System of Education. Pragmatism provides academic freedom to every institution which leads them nowhere. Pragmatism gives no fixed ideal to education. Such an education is bound to be fruitless. Emphasis on Material and Negation of Spiritual Values There is no room for spiritual values in pragmatism. It gives more Weight age to material values. Without spiritual values, we cannot achieve happiness, contentment and peace of mind and can go astray. Laxity in Discipline Pragmatism allows full freedom to the child who is not proper at the school stage and it leads to serious chaos and confusion. Condemnation of Formal Education Pragmatism advocates that all knowledge should be acquired through direct personal experiences. But knowledge is so vast and the span of life so short, that it is quite impossible to receive all knowledge through direct experiences. Hence acquiring all knowledge needs personal experiences and formal education both. Negation of the Past Pragmatism gives undue importance to the present. It ignores both past and future. The study of past is important to understand the present. Also there is need to link the present with future. Pragmatism is a Method Only. Pragmatism is not a philosophy of life but only a method of education, growth and development. In the words of William James â€Å"There is absolutely nothing new in the pragmatic method. It is just empirical attitude. It has no dogmas and no doctrines save its methods.† Pragmatism believes in Pluralism which is not proper. Merits of Pragmatism Project Method Project method is a gift of pragmatism. Through this method child attains knowledge by solving his practical problems. He performs the problematic acts in natural conditions. This method lays emphasis on learning through experiences. Importance of Child Opposing bookish knowledge and formal education, pragmatism lays great stress upon the development of child’s individuality by his own efforts. This makes education child- centre. Emphasis on Activity The principle of learning by doing is the main contribution of pragmatism. Children are active by nature. It emphasizes on the activity of the child. It prepares the child for future life in a very effective manner. Revolutionized the Process of Education This philosophy has infused life and zest in contribution. The concepts of ‘New Education’, ‘Progressive Education’ and Activity-centre curriculum which have changed the education outlook are the contribution of pragmatism. Social and Democratic Education Pragmatism infuses in a child a spirit of freedom, initiative, equality and also a sense of responsibility in relation to rights and duties of a citizen. This develops in the child love for democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and development of personality. Progressive Attitude Pragmatism emphasizes the qualities of freedom initiative expression, experiences congenial, environment, purposeful creativity and development of human values for the welfare of whole mankind. In the words of Rusk â€Å"It is merely a stage in the development of a new Idealism that will do full justice to reality, reconcile the practical and spiritual values and result in a culture which is the flower of efficiency.† Pragmatism is an attitude and a way of living which, opposing the old doctrines of Idealism and Naturalism inspires the individual to look ahead and creates new values for an unknown future so that he leads a better, happier and a richer life.

Portfolio 04232 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Portfolio 04232 - Essay Example When I was 6 years old, I experienced difficulty in attending primary school. My classmate used to speak fluent local language; I understood what they said but could not speak, which was a bit embarrassing for me. However, with the passage of time as I was admitted to high school, the students were from different parts of the country. They also spoke their local language, which I came to understand after a while. Slowly I could also speak the local language. There are many differences between city and country side education. I always lived in the city, where the educational standard is higher than that of country side. There is no particular rule in the countryside, whereas, in city the rules related to communication with other students are strict; local language cannot be used. Hence, I had to learn English, when I was in primary school. I was not interested to learn English but I had to because of the English class. Among the five incidents, I chose the second incident to provide my views regarding the critical incident. Culture plays a pivotal role in everyone’s life as it directs their behaviour and beliefs regarding any particular issue. We are guided by culture since childhood. Since birth our parents teach us what to do and what not to; this is culture. Hence, our parents are our first teacher, who makes us aware of our culture and also share their views regarding other cultures. Since our childhood, we are taught to follow few guidelines, which are directed to us. In few societies, male and female are not treated equally. In fact in many societies the male are dominating and they feel that females cannot achieve a higher position in the society by receiving higher educational degrees. In the second incident, I have observed that the female member of the organisation was not respected at all by the male colleague, who was surprised to hear that she is a professor. This thought has c rippled the

John Mill's Utilitarianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

John Mill's Utilitarianism - Essay Example Therefore, Utilitarianism is consequentialism - the morality of an action depended on its outcome, and on nothing else. Utility is happiness or pleasure, and suffering is disutility. Elements of the doctrine of Utilitarianism can be traced back to the Greek philosopher, Epicurus, although Jeremy Bentham is generally credited as the original propounder of this doctrine. "Nature", said Bentham, "has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think..." (Bentham, 1789, Ch I, p 1) Whatever brought the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people was good, according to Bentham. And this was the starting point for John Mill, in his Utilitarianism. First, let us look at the theory as expounded by Mill, and then follow it up by an examination of its validity. Mill stated that "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. ... Mill clarifies what he, and other Utilitarians before him, means by the terms 'Utilitarian', 'pleasure' and 'pain'. Pleasure does not mean pleasure only in its "grossest form" (Mill Ch 2). He anticipates the criticism that his theory is likely to attract, stating that people may not agree that humans are only interested in the pursuit of pleasure, and are therefore no better than swine. He shrugs off criticism by stating that a misrepresentation of the meaning of the word 'pleasure' is due to the common assumption that humans are capable of wanting no higher pleasures than those sought by swine, and not due to an erroneous definition of the word by the Utilitarians. He acknowledges the fact that Epicurus, in his time had faced the same criticism, which the current advocates of Utilitarianism face.Apart from quantity, utility or pleasure differed in quality as well. Some pleasures were of a higher or more refined nature like the "pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagina tion, and of the moral sentiments." (Mill, Ch 2). How does one distinguish a more valuable pleasure from a less valuable one This is done by the simple expedient of checking with people. If a greater number of persons rate one type of pleasure at a higher level than another type of pleasure, then the former pleasure is qualitatively better than the latter. Mill argues that a human being, because of his powers of discrimination desires pleasures of a different kind than animals, and is therefore not easily satisfied. By his very nature he may be susceptible to more suffering than animals. However, no human being, would like to give up his human form to become animal, so that he is assured of greater pleasure - of the animal variety. This in itself speaks of a human

Team Model Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Team Model - Assignment Example Workers may be indistinct in respect to what strengthening implies in substantial terms. The assignment includes the task to others of the power for specific capacities, errands, and choices. Strengthening is giving representatives the ability to make their employment. The idea of strengthening is nearly interfaced to inspiration and client administration. Representatives need to feel that their activities tally and strengthening are about getting this going (Boynton & amp; Fisher, 2005). Imparted choice making can enhance the quality and acknowledgement of choices, support specialist inspiration and respect toward oneself, expand the feeling of possession and enhance interpersonal relations with representatives (Lencioni, 2002). It is not simple to delegate. A rancher asked why his laborers came specifically to him with their issues and inquiries, skipping directly over the foreman. Upon further reflection, this cultivator understood that he was empowered this conduct by noting inquiries and tackling issues for the representatives. Rather, he required to help his foreman by having workers go to him with these matters (McConkey, 1974). There is a dubious equalization, here, on the other hand. While specialists ought to feel the need to work out normal issues straightforwardly with the ranch foreman, the entryway ought to be left open for laborers to sense that the rancher can hear them out, as well. In one homestead operation, the cultivator made it clear to the workers that his entryway was interested in listening on the off chance that they ever required talking. When the agriculturist would leave the field, be that as it may, the foreman would close that entryway, by advising workers that they were not to ever trouble the producer (Webb, 2002). The only way good team effectiveness can be felt is when the team work as a group to develop individual strength to maximize their

What do you stand for Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

What do you stand for - Essay Example n a story, reflect on the perceptions of the author to such topics and compare it on your own so that the message being conveyed by the author will be fully appreciated by the reader. In this paper, specific themes on three essays discussed in class are analyzed and compared with that of my own values. John Edgar Wideman’s â€Å"Our Time† tells a compelling story about his brother Robby and the obscurities and poor choices he had in life which led him to the ultimate consequence of his actions, being locked up forever in prison for murdering his best friend. Using three different points of views namely himself, Robby’s and their mother’s, Wideman was able to convey three distinct events in his brother’s life such as the death of Garth, the change in the family’s choice of neighborhood from Homewood to Shadyside and the time of Robby birth. For instance, Wideman acknowledged Robby’s perception of the world, on why felt nothing but hate and resentment stating, â€Å"The world’s a stone bitch. Nothing true if that’s not true.† (Wideman 694). Because of this approach, he has successfully presented a three-dimensional view of Robby’s personal troubles and difficulties that may have influenced the person his br other became in the present. In addition, Wideman tried to identify with the reasons behind his brother’s struggles and unfortunate pronouncements in life by making himself understand the personal circumstances from Robby’s childhood to the present without subjecting into any prejudice. With the help of the different standpoints on Robbie’s story, I came into realization that the fate of a person does not solely rely on where or how he was raised but a consequence of each choices he decide on life. Though it may be true that one’s upbringing and relationships can shape his values and morals, an individual has always a conscious choice in his every action throughout his life. I believe that free will is a special human ability to select

Health Status and Health Care Services of Canada v. United States Assignment

Health Status and Health Care Services of Canada v. United States - Assignment Example At the same time, the health system in Canada has customarily been celebrated as one of the best globally, as it focuses on ensuring universal health coverage, thereby prioritizing those in need of health services to those who can pay (NCHS, 2004). This project aims to provide more insight on the status of healthcare in both the United States and Canada, particularly by looking at the similarities and differences between the two organizations, as well as their accessibility, affordability, and availability. Demographic Characteristics: Several surveys carried out in the past have reported that whites are healthier in both the United States and Canada than any other population. This hypothesis is essentially because a substantial percentage of whites have access to decent health coverage as compared to minority populations in both nations (WHO, 2005). Additionally, the fact that the minority populations in both nations tend to suffer and die from chronic conditions corroborates this proposition. Concerning gender, it has been ascertained that women in both USA and Canada are healthier than their male counterparts partly because they tend to take great care of themselves and that they have healthy habits given that they control the amount of products such as alcohol and nicotine they consume. In like manner, it has been established that married couples in both countries are healthy than the divorced and widowed (WHO, 2005). This can majorly be attributed to the fact that couples often lo ok out for each other. High income earners in both the United States and Canada are often considered healthier than the low income earners, as they can easily sign up for health covers that come in handy in ensuring that they seek medical attention on a regular basis. Infant mortality data and causes: It is imperative to note that infant mortality is low in both USA and Canada, suggesting that

Accounting for Decision Makers -Discussion Question Assignment - 1

Accounting for Decision Makers -Discussion Question - Assignment Example The estimates are debited to maintenance and repairs account. When the actual repair happens, the exact amount is credit to this ledger account. Credit variance in this estimates account means repairs higher and should not be amortized but rather charged in this period. Debit variance means the company used less in repairs and such variance is rolls to the coming years Morse, & Wayne, (2015). Machine repair estimates costs are an initial value that is determined throughout the machine life. The cost is dividing by the number of years the machine will be on service. The annual estimates will then form part of amortization costs per year. Finance costs do not form part of estimates. A Major overhaul of a machine is treated as a periodic estimate cost. This cost is amortized over the remaining life of the machine. In manufacturing company, it is accounted as a cost of manufactured goods and recorded in the books as work in progress. An abnormal occurrence such as fire or floods is not allowable cost estimate. Minor repairs of machinery should be expensed in the year that they were incurred. They are termed as usage variance and should not form part of estimates the actual costs not estimates, in this case, should be subjected to an income of the same

Environmental Analysis of Gold Coast Theme Park Research Paper

Environmental Analysis of Gold Coast Theme Park - Research Paper Example Theme park facilities are services provided to customers. Traditionally, distribution channels are not a requirement of this business as revenue is generated through visitors who come in to catch some entertainment. In the recent era though, different distribution channels are coming up including conjoint branding activities or branding partnerships as is seen in the case of Volvo teaming up with Legoland, a theme park in California for their marketing activities. Likewise, current research journals on tourism industry suggest the following new mediums for distribution: Tourism is the driving factor of the economy of Gold Coast, contributing AUS $ 2.3 billion to the Gold Coast City's Gross Regional Product and providing employment to more than 40,000 people. The industry size can be determined by the fact that Gold Coast hosts as many as 78,000 visitors every day of which 80% are Australian nationals whereas a growing number is coming from New Zealand, UK, Japan, China, UAE & India. According to the official figures "The Gold Coast attracts 4.4 million tourists per year (9.9 million including day trippers) with a daily spend of $10.6 million". The entry barriers are low even if it requires a high level of investment (up to $ 110 million) to develop a theme park but the rates of returns are high. However, the high capital intensive nature of this business also means that the exit barriers are low since the investors do not want to leave their investment in search of more profitable options Phil Bartsch states in his article "Theme Parks enter the Digital Age' published in The Courier Mail, that the average annual revenue growth of 5 percent is forecast over the next several years in Australia's attractions industry. High level of competition and a monopoly like situation whereby Dream world has a leading position and retains it by offering competitive products in a wide income group span( from $ 5-$5000) High number of innovative products being offered by competitors Competitor Analysis Gold Coast boasts of as many as five big theme parks including the following:- Sea World Sea World Animal Adventures Sea World Helicopters Sea World Whale Watch Sea World Resort Wet 'n' Wild Water World Warner Bros Movie World Australian Outback Spectacular Paradise Country The Visitors, (Consumers) As mentioned earlier 80% of the visitors to Gold Coast are Australian nationals. Since the nature of business is strictly B2C (business to consumer), the customer does not have much power. The presence of other options in form of other amusement and theme parks provides more choice and gives the customers the power to choose. At present, there are no customer representative bodies. The Suppliers Apart from the supplier in their day to day operations including on the venue food suppliers, a Gold Coast theme park usually requires specialized vendors to suit the individual needs of their

Reading Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading Analysis - Essay Example The author has listed the central role that parliments attain in the establishment and acknowledged familiarity; parliament receives as being the highest decision-making body of the nation. The author explains that initially it was the government sector who worked on the economic’s transformation but the changing government and political parties have enabled bureaucracy to manage a major portion of economics. Politicans of the state favor the development of the private companies that will, in turn, support their political activities. Author has created a very convincing statement for the dominance of bureaucracy by implying the facts like control and regulation; Amakudari and administrative guidance in the favor of bureaucracy dominace. The author further argues that national bureaucracy control and regulates the functioing and production of business community and strictly holds its authority over private-sector companies in Japan. The dominance of bureaucrats over private business sector is well-acknowledged. To support this argument regarding bureaucracy hold on private sector business world, the author has provided some details of the rights that bereaucracy have, like selection of intelligent graduates from university for their management abilities and incorporating them in government sector. By controlling the official’s appointment in government sector, bureaucracy is often believed as real power holder of the nation by many people. Government sector is capable to hold its control over the developme nt of private business sector by managing the activities of production, sales and distribution; but the insight regarding the dominance of bureaucracy over private sectors appears quite appealing. The author adds further weight to the perception of bureaucracy control by exposing the dependency of muncipal governments on the subsidies from natural government as they have restricted rights for

Heat and Dust Essay Example for Free

Heat and Dust Essay The era of the Victorian women spanned 64 years and concluded several changes in attitudes. The common thinking about women in the Victorian era was that a woman? s position was limited to domestic work and the care for her children. The stereotype of the distribution of roles was women staying by the hearth with their needles whilst men wielded their swords. Women had to bear a large family and to maintain a smooth family atmosphere whereby men did not need to bother himself about domestic matters. A gentlewoman ensured that the home was a place of comfort for her husband and family from the stresses of Industrial Britain. Victorian dresses show typical excessive style elements such as V-waists, layering of trims and bell sleeves. The Victorian head of household dressed his woman to show off family wealth. Additionally, there were great differences between members of society by the end of the Queen Victoria? s reign but the most instantly apparent difference was through the garments worn. Not only the dress code symbolized the status of a Victorian woman but also the circumstances she lived in. A wealthy wife was supposed to spend her time reading, sewing, receiving guests, going visiting, letter writing, seeing to the servants and dressing for the part as her husband’s social representative. In contrast, for the very poor of Britain society it was common to wear fifth hand clothes and to eat the pickings left over in a rich household. Whether married or single all Victorian women were expected to be weak and helpless so that they looked like â€Å"fragile delicate flowers incapable of making decisions†. Besides, if a woman took a lover it was not made public because if that became the case she would be cut by society. Instead, men could amble along to one of their gentlemen? s clubs and always find a â€Å"warm welcome†. Relationships in 1887 were quite artificial. A married woman could not own property and became a chattel of the man. A divorced woman had indeed no chance of acceptance in society again. At the end of Victorian times things changed and many women adopted the tailor made garment that showed their more serious concern to be recognized as thinking beings with much to offer society beyond being a social asset for a husband. New inventions such as sewing machine or railway and the capability to use those led to new thinking and women of all classes felt the dynamic atmosphere of change as much as men. Many women joined the Fabian Society, a group of non revolutionary thinking socialists and others sought reform for more practical dress, better education, the right to take up paid work and better employment prospects.

The Transmission Model Of Communications

The Transmission Model Of Communications Most professionals need a few theories to back up their thinking and also to help give substance to their recommendations. A few theories and models give us a concrete and rational foundation for decision-making. These are especially helpful when thinking about how to tackle an issue and how to work out what is going on. They are useful too when devising plans and writing communications strategies, explaining concepts to colleagues and clients or giving focus when we need direction. These are my ten top theories, the ones I have found most useful in over thirty years as a practitioner, consultant and lecturer. Theory One Shannon and Weaver the transmission model of communications One of the oldest and simplest theories about communications came from Shannon and Weaver (1949). But Shannon and Weaver were not PR professionals; they worked for Bell Telephone Labs in the USA. Shannon and Weaver were focused on issues about accuracy and efficiency in telephony. Their model is both simple to understand and generally applicable and this originally made it attractive to not only people working in PR and communications but also academics who have since developed more sophisticated models and theories to explain the process of human and organisational communications. Shannon and Weavers original model often called the transmission model consisted of five sequential elements: An information source, that produces a message. A transmitter, that encodes the message into signals A channel, that carries the signals, which have been adapted to allow transmission A receiver, that decodes the message from the signal A destination, where the message arrives. They also included a sixth element, noise, defined as any interference with the message travelling along the channel that could change or impair the signal and so change the original message into something different from that intended. This transmission model, which has been around for a long time, is somewhat simplistic. But it does serve as a reminder to practitioners about the basic processes involved in communications and in PR. Its also the basis for social scientist and guru on propaganda Harold Lasswells explanation of communications as being Who says What to Whom in What Channel with What Effect Shannon and Weaver argued that there are three problems when thinking about communications: The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning conveyed? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behaviour? They assumed that sorting out the technical problems would largely solve the semantic and effectiveness problems (and that really is simplistic). You can see that there are a few problems with this model. It is linear and one-way there is no engagement with the receiver. The sender is called the information source it is not a complex sender. The receiver appears to be a passive and accepting, a simple and willing absorber of information, hardly a critical interpreter of what he or she is exposed to. There is no way to assess whether the receiver has accurately picked up the message and then believed it or acted upon it. There is no consideration of the context of meaning (is this teacher to parent, politician to floating voter?). Nor to when in terms of time the communication takes place. But then again this theory was devised by and for telecommunications engineers. Consequently this simple model cannot reflect the complex psychology of the human being or the physiology of the human brain. Nor does it accommodate the existing relationships between sender and receiver, or the infinite ways a message can be encoded in term s of words and pictures. Also it does not allow for the unique characteristics of the multiple channels that could be use d to get the message across and that affect how a message will be seen and interpreted. So theor y one is a useful start point. Theory Two James Carey transportation/communications links http://wyolife.com/Thank%20US/morse%20telegraph.jpg Invention and technology have a huge part to play in the development of corporate communications. James Carey was an American academic and journalism specialist. In his book Communication As Culture (1989) Carey discussed the development of the telegraph and its understated role in future developments in communication. The non-electric telegraph was invented by Claude Chappe in 1794 and was a visual system using semaphore, a flag-based alphabet, and depending on a line of sight for communication. The optical telegraph was subsequently replaced by the electric telegraph, the invention of Samuel Morse. Morse proved that signals could be transmitted by wire and, to facilitate this developed the Morse Code. The first news dispatched by electric telegraph was in May 1844. The death knell for the electric telegraph came with the invention of the telephone in 1877. So before the nineteenth century the movement of information was more or less the same as the transport of goods or people and both were described as communication. Before the telegraph (and the telephone) most decisions particularly business and political decisions were made face to face. Carey argued that the telegraph permitted for the first time the effective separation of communication from transportation. So after the telegraph, as soon as messages could travel faster than the people, horses or trains that delivered them, everything changed, in terms of how humans communicated across distances and over time. Geography became irrelevant, enabling communities to move away from the local, towards the national, and international or global. The telegraph allowed people from one side of the world to communicate almost instantaneously with someone on the other side of the world. How quaint this seems in todays digital world but this helps us look at the origins of modern communication. Because this shows to some extent where plain English came from. The short brief telegraph demanded a prose style that Carey noted was more à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦lean and unadorned. Think of a tweetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. So all those years ago it was the simple old telegraph that first called for the plainest of writing and, as a knock-on effect, changed the way news was written. At the same time style became more objective because these words would be read by individuals of many different beliefs and opinions, from many different communities, regions and countries. Technological advances continue to have a huge impact on how we practice communications on what messages work, on how we encode our message, on what channels to use so that the receiver sees and hears it accurately and so on. The meaning of the message comes from the process listeners, readers and/or viewers go through when they make sense of what they see, hear and feel. Meaning is not extracted from but constructed by the message. Its clear that, while we dont need to be technician, everyone working in the field of communications must keep abreast of developments in technology because you can bet your bottom dollar they will have an impact of professional communications practice. Theory Three Grunig and Hunts Four Models for Public Relations Managing Public Relations written by Grunig and Hunt (1984) highlighted four models for how organizations can chose to practice public relations. The four models developed more or less chronologically through the twentieth century. This is the most often cited theory of public relations and these theories are still relevant, taught as part of graduate, post-graduate and vocational qualifications across the UK and overseas. The Four Models Press agent model one way communication where an organization tells an audience what it wants it to believe. Little or no research to determine audiences needs interests or inclinations to agree with the organisations objectives. This is the simple, original, historic model for PR with the focus on getting favourable coverage (ie publicity) for your organization, cause, celebrity, brand via the media. One -way transfer of information No feedback Little or no research Information is not always accurate all publicity is good publicity Public information model a journalists approach to public relations, offers truthful accurate information about an organisation leaving our damaging or harmful information. This model developed pretty much as a reaction to attacks on large corporations and government agencies by investigative journalists. The leaders of these institutions needed more than simple propaganda peddled by press agents to counter the attacks on them in the media. So they hired their own journalists to act as public relations practitioners, and press handouts were written and distributed to give their point of view and explain actions. This is also the model where essential information is provided to the people and persuasion or attitude change is not essential. Examples might be letting people know about the weather, about road traffic, or internally about new appointments and soon. The approach is very much lets get the facts out. One way transfer of information Some evaluation on effectiveness Little or no research about the audience(s) Used most often by government Truthful and accurate Two-way asymmetrical model emphasises a change in attitudes or behaviours in the audience only in accordance with the objectives and goals of the organisation. Persuasive communication really has its origins here. In 1917 during World War 1 US President Woodrow Wilson set up The Creel Committee (AKA CPI Committee on Public Information). Committee members included the so-called founder of modern public relations practice, social scientist Edward Bernays. Communications took a more scientific approach that made the practice two-way with practitioners both seeking information from and giving information to publics. Theories introduced by Bernays were those of propaganda, persuasion, and the engineering of consent. This model is clearly at work when attempts are made to influence publics to adopt a preferred point of view or behaviour. Research provides input into the process (for example research into why people buy a new car help manufacturers create motivating relevant messages). Scientific persuasion Two-way transfer of information Research done to persuade audience(s) Messages created to persuade Model slanted in favour of organization The two-way symmetrical model uses research to better understand the audience and to resolve disputes. Each party the sender and receiver is willing to alter messages and even behaviours to accommodate the others needs. The two-way symmetrical model makes use of research and other forms of two-way communication. Unlike the two-way asymmetrical model, however, it uses research to facilitate understanding and communication rather than to identify messages most likely to motivate or persuade publics. A good example might be management and workforce in a consultation process enabling a change of policies and practices resulting in higher productivity and better pay and conditions. This model includes ideas and principles like telling the truth, interpreting the client and public to one another and management understanding the viewpoints of employees and neighbours as well as employees and neighbours understanding the viewpoints of management. It is perhaps a communications ideal as many organisations are unwilling to go all the way and engage so fully with audiences as they wish to retain the concept of control. It could be argued that modern technology and digital communications is forcing even the most reluctant organisation to have to consider this model seriously to maintain a competitive or an ethical position that enhances reputation. Behaviour change on both sides Research done to understand, not manipulate, the audience Strategies include consultation, bargaining, negotiation , discussion, compromise Best model of communication? http://tidforlivet.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/tabell.png https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPhMEHXxN6-Fk1Pju9Zs8ou8qBHj8g8zf2x2imwUX09RN65CTWEIMSnvwKHDolAj_5HDqALgwirkr481RCRUTkT3PJIi_8P9rUKKpPtlLzIZLy3mERMwYfg5uFeWVLK0BIRt5rOh6SLNk/s400/Ethical_Influence.png http://www.derekchristensen.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/cialdini-influence-chart.png Theory Four Robert Cialdini and Influence Arguably one of the key tasks of corporate communications is to influence others to comply with what you want; which may be to understand an issue, engage in debate, prefer or like or support your point of view, or behave a different way. Robert Cialdini, Regents Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University has made influence his lifes work. Having observed extensively how influence works by studying compliance professionals (people skilled in getting others to do what they want them to do salespeople, fundraisers, recruiters, advertisers and so on) he published, in 1984, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. I was given this book when I worked in the advertising industry and I go back to these ideas time and time again. Cialdini arrived at what he called his six weapons of influence and we can see these six principles at work in many successful PR and communications programmes. But do take care influence in the wrong hands becomes manipulation. There are many examples when this thinking has been used for evil ends. Use these strategies for good, not to persuade people to do things that are wrong. Examine your conscience and apply this thinking ethically 1. Reciprocity People generally aim to return a compliment. They invite people to come to dinner having been invited themselves; they pay back debts; they treat others as they are treated. Its youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This leads us to feel obliged to offer concessions or discounts to others if they have offered them to us first because we feel uncomfortable if we feel indebted to them. For example youll giving money to a fundraiser who has given you a little badge or sticker; a free tasting of a new food product in-store may make you buy a pack; you might decide to buy more from a supplier if they have offered you preferential terms first. You can sometimes use this principle by simply reminding the other person of how you have helped them in the past. Key thing is to give a service, information or a concession. Your target will then be primed to return the favour. To use reciprocity ethically to influence others, identify objectives, and consider wha t you want the target to do. You can then identify what you can give to them in return. 2. Commitment and Consistency Once weve committed to something, were then more inclined to go through with it because, says Cialdini, we human beings have an innate desire to be consistent. For example people who sign a petition supporting a new community facility are more likely to donate money to that cause when asked later. Get peoples commitment early on, either verbally or in writing. For example, if the communications programme is building support for the building of a new supermarket, communicate early on with stakeholders, and take their comments and views into account. 3. Social Proof This principle relies on peoples sense of safety in numbers because people tend to follow similar others. For example, were more likely put some money into a dish for staff tips if theres money already in that dish, well buy a product if lots of others have done so and provide testimonials that its good and and were more likely to support a policy if support seems high already. The assumption is that if lots of other people are doing something, then it must be OK, safe to do, good, right to do too. Were more likely to be influenced if we feel uncertain and, another key factor, is whether those people already behaving a certain way are like us in terms of lifetsage and lifestyle. Internally you could use social proof when trying to get support for a new project by getting the support from influential people in your organisation whose opinions others respect. And if you are selling a product, say how many people use it and get them to recommend it on social networking sites. 4 Liking Were more likely to be influenced by people we like. And people are more likely to buy from people like themselves, from friends, and from people they know and respect. Likability comes in many forms people might be similar or familiar to us, they might give us compliments, or we may just simply trust them.. Put in the time and effort needed to build trust and rapport with clients and people you work with, and behave with consistency. Develop your emptional intelligence together with active listening skils. But dont try too hard to be liked by others people can always spot a phoney. Companies that use sales agents from within the community employ the liking principle extensively and with huge success. 5. Authority We feel a sense of duty or obligation to people in positions of authority. This is why advertisers of pharmaceutical products employ doctors to front their campaigns, and why most of us will do most things that our manager requests. Job titles, uniforms, and even accessories like cars or gadgets can lend an air of authority, and can persuade us to accept what these people say. 6. Scarcity This principle says that things are more attractive when their availability is limited, or when we stand to lose the opportunity to acquire them on favorable terms. For instance, we might buy something immediately if were told that its the last one, or that a special offer will soon expire. Authority Here you can use both your own authority, and the authority of others, as influencers. When you use your own authority, be careful not to use it negatively. Our article onFrench and Ravens Five Forms of Power has more on different sources of power, and explains how you can use power and authority positively. To use authority, get support from influential and powerful people, and ask for their help in backing the idea. (Use Influence Maps to help you network with people who can help.) If youre marketing a product or service, highlight well-known and respected customers, use comments from industry experts, and talk about impressive research or statistics. Things like well-produced brochures, professional presentations, impressive offices, and smart clothing can also lend authority. Scarcity With this principle, people need to know that theyre missing out if they dont act quickly. If youre selling a product, limit the availability of stock, set a closing date for the offer, or create special editions of products. This principle can be trickier to apply within your organization if youre trying to influence others to support your ideas or projects. You can, however, use urgency to get support for your ideas. For example, you can highlight the possible urgent consequences of the problem that your idea helps to solve. http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.png Tip: Remember that these are just six ways that you can influence others. Use these principles alongside other tools such as the Rhetorical Triangle, Monroes Motivated Sequence, Win-Win Negotiation, the Persuasion Tools Model, and the Minority Influence Strategy. You can also use Stakeholder Analysis and Management to build support for your ideas and projects. http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/bottom460grey.png Resisting Influence You can also use this tool when others are trying to influence you. In these situations, bear the following points in mind: Before accepting a free gift or a discounted service, or before agreeing to hear confidential information, ask yourself whether youre going to feel obliged to give the same or more in return. Should you decline, so that you dont feel indebted? Before agreeing to a course of action, even at a very preliminary level, think about the consequences of your decision. Will you feel so invested in this new course of action that you wont want to change your mind? Though everyone else is pursuing a particular route or buying a product, it may not be right for you. Avoid falling victim to the herd mentality. You might decide that its best to go against the trend. When you feel tempted to buy a product or sign up for a service, ask yourself whether youve fallen under the spell of a particularly likable salesperson. Is the salesperson similar to you, familiar to you, or extremely complimentary? Carefully note your reaction to authority figures. Has the person youre negotiating with triggered your respect for authority? Are you making your choice because you want to, or are you swayed by an expert opinion? And does this person genuinely have the authority he is implying, or is he merely using the symbols of that authority? Before you fall for a sales pitch claiming that a product is running out of stock or that a discount deal is soon to expire, think again. Do you really want or need the product now, or has its lack of availability caught your attention? http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.png Key Points The Six Principles of Influence were created by Robert Cialdini, and published in his 1984 book, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. The principles are: reciprocity, commitment, social proof, liking, authority, and scarcity. You can use the six principles whenever you want to influence or persuade others. However, its also useful to use them with other tools. And, by knowing about the principles, you can become resistant to people who try to use them to manipulate you. You also need to make sure that you dont misuse these principles avoid using them to deceive or mislead people, and make sure that you use them for peoples good, rather than to disadvantage them. Theory Five Patrick Jackson and others the people change ladder Patrick Jackson was a public relations practitioner working in the US he and others considered the steps communicators has to go though in order to effect behaviour change Build awareness eg publicity, advertising, face to face communications Develop a latent readiness an inclination to make change during which opinions begin to form Trigger a desire to change via a natural or planned event Utilise an intermediate behaviour during which an individual begins to investigate new behaviours Changing behaviours and adopting the new behaviour Theory Six Mendelsohns Three Assumptions for Success Mendelsohn (1973) believed campaigns often failed because campaign designers overpromised, assumed the public would automatically receive and enthusiastically accept their messages, and blanketed the public with messages not properly targeted and likely to be ignored or misinterpreted. His Three Assumptions are still a touchstone for communications planning 1.Target your messages 2. Assume your target public is uninterested in your messages. 3. Set reasonable, midrange goals and objectives. Theory Seven Hierarchy of effects theory of persuasion This is a sequential representation of how advertising in particular influences a consumers decision to purchase or not a product or service. The hierarchy-of-effects theory is used to set up a structured series of message objectives with the aim of building on each successive step until the sale is achieved. Although this model is often used to plan advertising campaign it is a useful one to look at in relation to PR campaigns as often these too require a stepped approach. This thinking informs AMECs communications objectives funnel (see section on measurement and evaluation) Step 1 Exposure. Some PR programmes get no further than this just putting the message out. But just placing a message in an environment cannot guarantee it is seen or acknowledged. Step 2 Attention Even paid-for placed advertising will fail if the audience is not paying attention. A PR message must be capable of attracting attention and cutting through the noise of daily life. Complex messages have to capture even higher levels of attention, especially with attention spans diminishing as they are. Creativity, presentation and encoding are key elements at this stage. Carefully selected culturally specific and acceptable multi-sensory PR and communications techniques, using symbols, colours and music, are used to grab peoples attention and wake them up. Some aspects of attention are controlled by the potential receiver and some are involuntary responses to sensory cues. A sudden noise, for example, can get someones attention (essentially a human response mechanism to ensure quick responses to danger.) Conversely something amusing will draw attention because the receiver enjoys seeing it. Advertising practitioners may use physiological triggers like fast cut video to get and retain attention. But this is exhausting process requiring high levels of mental processing. So sometimes even though attention is gained, the desired message is lost in term sof being able to remember wht that was all about. Step 3 Involvement/Engagement Although research indicates people pay attention to sudden changes in sounds or visual effects, its true too that they stop paying attention if a message seems irrelevant, uninteresting, or distasteful. Messages that are relevant keep people interested and make them primed to absorb the information. This is essentially saying that communications needs to answer the question Whats in it for me? Once that is demonstrated, techniques like storytelling, examples and case histories and the use of novel content keeps the receiver engaged and interested. Step 4 Comprehension Keeping the receivers attention does not ensure he or she will understand the message. Step 5 Skill acquisition (learning how). Well-intentioned people may be unable to follow through on an idea if they lack the skills to do so. Potential voters without transportation to the polls will not vote; intended nonsmokers will not quit smoking without social support; interested restaurant patrons will not come if they cannot afford it; parents interested in a civic betterment program will not attend a meeting if they do not have child care. An effective campaign anticipates the target publics needs to provide the help they require. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), for example, found, through a Burke Marketing survey, that many people had a passive attitude about fire, many believed they had much more time to escape than they really do, and only 16% had developed and practiced a home fire escape plan. As a result, NFPAs 1998 Fire Safety Week promotion focused on teaching students about fire escape planning and practice, with incentives to encourage them to part icipate in a documented practice drill with their families. Although the Silver Anvil Award-winning campaign generated an enormous amount of publicity, the most dramatic result was that at least 25 lives were saved as a direct result of the families participation in the promotion. Step6 Persuasion (attitude change). Although McGuire listed this step following skills acquisition, attitude change often precedes skill development. People who lack the skills to follow through on an idea may tune out the details, figuring it is not relevant for them. Attitude change is another of the necessary but often insufficient steps in the persuasion process. Sometimes, however, attitude change is all that is necessary, particularly if the goal of a campaign is to increase a publics satisfaction with an organization in order to avoid negative consequences such as lawsuits, strikes, or boycotts. Usually, however, a campaign has an outcome behavior in mind. In that case, remember that people often have attitudes inconsistent with their behaviors. Many smokers believe smoking is a bad thing but still smoke. Many nonvoters say voting is important and they intend to vote, but they still fail to show up on election day. Step 7 Storing the new position in memory emory storage. This step is important because people receive multiple messages from multiple sources all day, every day. For them to act on your message, they need to remember it when the appropriate time comes to buy a ticket, make a telephone call, fill out a form, or attend an event. They need to be able to store the important information about your message in their memory, which may not be easy if other messages received simultaneously demand their attention. Key elements of messages, therefore, need to be communicated in ways that make them stand out for easy memorization. Step 8. Information retrieval. Simply storing information does not ensure that it will be retrieved at the appropriate time. People might remember your special event on the correct day but forget the location. Reminders or memory devices such as slogans, jingles, and refrigerator magnets can help. Step 9. Motivation (decision). This is an important step that many campaign designers forget in their own enthusiasm for their campaign goals.Remember Mendelsohns (1973) admonition that people may not be interested in the campaign? They need reasons to follow through. The benefits need to outweigh the costs. In addition, the benefits must seem realistic and should be easily obtained. The more effort required on the part of the message recipients the less likely it is that they will make that effort. If the message recipients believe a proposed behavior is easy, will have major personal benefits, or is critically important, they are more likely to act. The challenge for the program planner is to discover what will motivate the target audience successfully, an issue addressed later in this chapter. Elgin DDB of Seattle, when asked to help reduce Puget Sound curbside disposal of grass clippings by 5%, realized motivation would be an important focus. Focus groups and phone surveys indica ted that the target group, male homeowners aged 25 to 65, had an interest in grass-cycling but needed the proper tools to make it easy and practical. As a result, they arranged to recycle consumers old polluting gas mowers for free at a special event and sell Torro and Ryobi mulch mowers at below the normal retail price, with an additional rebate. With a goal of selling 3,000 mowers, they sold 5,000. They hoped to remove 1,500 gas mowers from the market and ended up recycling approximately 2,600. And, as for their original goal of reducing curbside disposal of grass clippings by 5%? They more than tripled the target amount, reducing grass clippings by 17%, winning a 1999 Silver Anvil Award. 10. Behavior. Success often is measured in terms of behaviors such as sales or attendance figures. Marketing experts, however, know that getting someones business once does not guarantee long-term success. One study (Building Customer, 1996) found that keeping customers loyal can boost profits up to 80%. As a result, the program planner needs to do everything possible to ensure that behavior attempts

Dental Anxiety in Dental and Non-Dental Students

Dental Anxiety in Dental and Non-Dental Students Dental Anxiety in Dental and Non-Dental Students Abstract- Objective: To compare levels of dental anxiety in dental and non-dental students and then relate it with degree of knowledge about dental treatment procedures. Method: Modified Dental Anxiety Scale (MDAS) was used to measure and analyze statistically the dental anxiety among dental students (n=30) and non-dental students (n=30). The participants include 28 (46.7%) males and 32 (53.3%) females of age ranging from 18-24 years (mean age 21 ±1.619). The data was collected in Islamic International Dental Hospital, Islamabad from patients under waiting treatment. Results: Education was associated with dental anxiety in patients. The dental students had a mean dental anxiety score of dental students was found to be 13.5 and that of non-dental students was 16.5. Conclusion: The results support the hypothesis that knowledge about dental procedures has a significant role to elevate dental anxiety levels. Keywords: dental anxiety; degree of knowledge; dental students; non-dental student â€Å"Dental anxiety is an aversive psychological response to poorly define, or not immediately present dental stimulus interpreted as potentially harmful or dangerous, usually within a dental context†(1). Dental anxiety is a common phenomenon amongst patients prior to obtaining dental procedures, often giving rise to a vicious cycle of fear leading to avoidance of treatment(2, 3). This potential hazard to treatment accounts for an understanding of its etiology, so as to help design and execute effective treatment regimens(4).Research establishes; prior experience of treatment, pain during treatment, age, gender, social class and lack of economic resources, negligence of oral health and inadequacy of and education as etiological factors of dental anxiety. Al-Omari et al. showed in their study that dental students had lowest anxiety levels as compared to medical and engineering students(5). Medical students were found to be the most anxious group and it was indicated that lack of dental information is directly related to increasing levels of dental fears. As per Curson and Coplans, anxiety is a major barrier in the dental treatments as children and adult avoid or delay attending the dentist except in emergency situations(6).Dental anxiety may have elevated levels amongst patients majorly due to lack of knowledge about the procedures and outcomes of dental treatment that would be carried out on them(7).Therefore, it is crucial to highlight dentally anxious patients in order to facilitate the course of treatment and to help accomplish it successfully. Different instruments for measuring dental anxiety include; Corah’s dental anxiety scale, Modified Dental Anxiety Scale (MDAS), Dental Fear Survey, State Trait Anxiety Scale, General Geer Fear Scale and Getz Dental Brief Survey(1). Humphris GM et al. (1995) suggested that MDAS is more comprehensive, highly valid and reliable, with a simpler and more consistent answering system(8).Therefore, modified den tal anxiety scale has been used for the purpose of this study. The aim of the study was to understand how lack of knowledge of dental procedures may contribute to increased anxiety levels amongst non-dental students when compared to dental students. With the identification of existence of such differences, improved treatment techniques and management strategies may then be accomplished(7). Materials and Methods: The study was conducted at Islamic International Dental Hospital, Islamabad over a period of two months from May to June, on patients awaiting treatment while attending various departments at the hospital. This study is a cross- sectional study. Questionnaires were given to dental students (n=30) of first to fourth year (prior to receiving treatment) with their ages ranging from 18-24 years. Non-dental students (n=30) meeting the same age requirement were selected by purposive convenient sampling. The subjects were approached personally in clinical settings and questionnaire conducted after verbal consent. A total of 30 questionnaires were distributed to patients from each group. Data was obtained using modified dental anxiety scale, wherein extra items were added related to prior dental treatment experience and whether or not they had a dentist in their family. The modified dental anxiety scale consisted of five multiple choice items, including the following: If you had to go to your dentist for treatment tomorrow, how would you feel? If you were sitting in the waiting room (waiting for treatment), how would you feel? If you were about to have a tooth drilled, how would you feel? If you were about to have your teeth scaled and polish, how would you feel? If you were about to have a local anesthetic injection in your gum, how would you feel? Options available as answers to each of the above question were ranging from not anxious scaled as 1 to extremely anxious scaled as 5. The scores of all the questions were summed up to give us the patient’s dental anxiety score. Demographic details in the questionnaire included age gender and education. For the statistical analysis data was studied using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 17.0. For descriptive analysis of data mean and standard deviation was computed for age. Calculation of dental anxiety scores was made to compare differences in level of anxiety amongst both the groups. If the total score of 15 or more was obtained, it was indicated that the subject was highly anxious(9). Results: A total of 60 patients were included in this study; 30 dental students and 30 non-dental students. Out of this total of 60 patients, 28 (46.7%) were males and 32 (53.3%) were females. Their ages ranged from 18 to 24 years, giving a mean of 21 years with a standard deviation of  ±1.619. There were 13 males (43.3%) out of a total of 30 dental students and 17 females (56.7%). In the non-dental category, there were 15 males (50%) and 15 females (50%) out of a total of 30 students. The results display that a total of 9 (15%) patients had mild anxiety, out of which 8(13.3%) were dental students and 1(1.7%) was a non-dental student. therefore it can be seen that anxiety levels among dental students correspond mainly to the lower level of mildly anxious. 22 (36.7%) of the total patients had a moderate category anxiety, out of these 12 (20%) were dental students and 10 (16.7%) were non dental students. 24 (40%) were highly anxious patients, out of those 2 (3.3%) were dental students and 3 ( 5%) were non dental students. There were no patients who showed a result of no anxiety levels (Fig.2). The graph for the mean dental anxiety scores of dental and non-dental students demonstrates a clear variation in the dental anxiety levels of the two groups. There is an increased average dental anxiety scores in non-dental students which urges the use of a statistical test to further analyze data. Accordingly the Mann- Whitney U test was undertaken. The p value obtained so forth was 0.003 which is less than the arbitrarily significant p value of 0.05, indicating a significant difference in DAS of the two groups. The (Fig.3) and (Fig.4) also, represent the percentage response in tabulated form. Discussion: The study was undertaken to examine the role of, awareness of dental procedures, on patient’s dental anxiety levels. The purpose of the study was to acquire an understanding of differences in the dental anxiety levels amongst patients with sufficient prior knowledge of dental procedures as in the case of dental students and those without. Realization of the existence of any such differences would help dentists design strategies that would eliminate dental anxiety as a barrier to effective treatment. Dentally anxious patients often pose great difficulties during treatment(2).Such patients also are often resistant to going for treatment and may require behavioral pharmacological and educational interventions to allow for improved treatment and oral health statuses(10).The study was undertaken using the Modified Dental Anxiety Scale. The use of MDAS allowed for validity and reliability in the data collected thus serving as strength of the study(8, 11). Standardization was also ob served, with collection of all data in clinical settings. A major limitation of the study was its sample size. The survey comprised of only 60 patients, 30 being non-dental patients, receiving formal education in fields other than dentistry aged between 18-24 years. The second group comprised of dental students in any year of their study undergoing dental treatments and aged 18-24 years. The sample being selected randomly and by convenience also poses questions to generalizability of any findings as it is not representative of a much larger general population. Dental anxiety is a vastly sought after topic with researchers attempting to understand its causative factors and its impact on oral health status of patients. An in-depth understanding of its causative factors would enable practice of newer and improved techniques with increased patient compliance and willingness to undergo the required treatments without making the task difficult. Inadequate knowledge of dental procedure has also been studied as a causative factor of dental anxiety. Abu Hantash et al. suggested that dental anxiety in non-dental students is due to previous traumatic dental experiences and fear of pain(12, 13).High levels of anxiety in non-dental students was also suggested due to lack of acquaintance with dental procedures(14, 15).On the other hand enhanced education and awareness has been positively correlated to dental anxiety(16). B. Peretz et al. (1994) showed in his study that anxiety in dental students is inversely related to the exposure of dental procedures and it tends to reduce from preclinical to clinical years(9, 15, 17). Imran Farooq et al. (2014) following this study, found it sensible to deduce that dental anxiety in students declines with gradual progress in education and clinical exposure(15).Dental anxiety has been understood to have immense impact on oral as well as general health of individuals(18).Those who succumb to dental anxiety are found to enter a vicious cycle of ill-being. wherein anxiety leads to avoidance seeking treatment, leading to increased severity of disease and hence worsened oral and general health status(19), as shown in Fig.5. Some other important considerations that were beyond the scope of this particular study was an investigation of any previous traumatic dental experiences, especially from the non-dental students as they would have led to increased fears. Also there has been no ranking of anxiety provoking stimulus for dental students who may have been equally anxious about pain, and in jection as is true of non-dental students. According to Todd and Walker(20), it was reported by 43% of people that they avoided going to the dentist lest they experienced increased troubles with their teeth. In another study by Curson and Coplans it was found that DA amongst both children and adult patients led to avoidance or irregularities in going for treatment, or visiting dentist in case of emergency only(6). The findings from our study prompt the need of devising ways to increase patient knowledge of procedures to decrease anxiety. This may include arranging of educational workshops on awareness about dental procedures. Conclusion: In conclusion there is existence of a difference in dental anxiety levels; among dental and non-dental students. With this difference it can be comprehended that dental anxiety owes itself to knowledge and awareness of dental procedures alongside other etiological factors. Know-how of dental procedures enhances patients’ ability to cope up with required treatment by eliminating barriers created due to anxiety. Hence increasing patient knowledge may serve to reduce apprehensions and enhance patient confidence on treatment procedure and its needs, consequently reducing anxiety. References: 1.http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/dentalanxiety. 2.Cooper CL WJ, Kelly M. Job satisfaction, mental health, and job stressors among general dental practitioners in the UK. British Dental Journal. 1987. 3.Armfield JM. What goes around comes around: revisiting the hypothesized vicious cycle of dental fear and avoidance. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. Jun;41(3):279-87. 4.Taani DQ. Dental attendance and anxiety among public and private school children in Jordan. Int Dent J. 2002 Feb;52(1):25-9. 5.Al-Omari WM, Al-Omiri MK. Dental anxiety among university students and its correlation with their field of study. J Appl Oral Sci. 2009 May-Jun;17(3):199-203. 6.Curson I CM. The need for sedation in conservative dentistry. An investigation in the inner London area. 1970. 7.Appukuttan DP TA, Cholan PK, Subramanian S, Vinayagavel M. prevelance of dental anxiety among patient attending a dental educational institution in chennai, India. 2013. 8.Humphris GM, Morrison T, Lindsay SJ. The Modified Dental Anxiety Scale: validation and United Kingdom norms. Community Dent Health. 1995 Sep;12(3):143-50. 9.Peretz B, Zadik D. Dental anxiety of parents in an Israeli kibbutz population. Int J Paediatr Dent. 1994 Jun;4(2):87-92. 10.Marya CM, Grover S, Jnaneshwar A, Pruthi N. Dental anxiety among patients visiting a dental institute in Faridabad, India. West Indian Med J. Mar;61(2):187-90. 11.Corah NL. Development of a dental anxiety scale. J Dent Res. 1969 Jul-Aug;48(4):596. 12.Abu Hantash AY, Al Aker Dental Anxiety and Fear among medical field students at Al Quds University 13.Mohammed RB, Lalithamma T, Varma DM, Sudhakar KN, Srinivas B, Krishnamraju PV, et al. Prevalence of dental anxiety and its relation to age and gender in coastal Andhra (Visakhapatnam) population, India. J Nat Sci Biol Med. Jul;5(2):409-14. 14.Serra-Negra J, Paiva SM, Oliveira M, Ferreira E, Freire-Maia F, Pordeus I. Self-reported dental fear among dental students and their patients. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Jan;9(1):44-54. 15.Imran Farooq SA. A cross sectional study of gender differences in dental anxiety prevailing in the students of a Pakistani dental college. 2014. 16.Kirova DG, Atanasov DT, Lalabonova CK, Janevska S. Dental anxiety in adults in Bulgaria. Folia Med (Plovdiv). Apr-Jun;52(2):49-56. 17.Peretz B, Mann J. Dental anxiety among Israeli dental students: a 4-year longitudinal study. Eur J Dent Educ. 2000 Aug;4(3):133-7. 18.McGrath C, Bedi R. The association between dental anxiety and oral health-related quality of life in Britain. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 Feb;32(1):67-72. 19.Attaullah AAK. PREVALENCE OF DENTAL ANXIETY AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN. 20.Todd JE WA. Adult Dental Health in England and Wales. 1980

Confessions For the Rest of Us :: Literary Analysis, God, Augustine of Hippo

Novels are written with the intent to entertain, textbooks to educate, and scripture to exhort. All writing has a purpose, intentional or otherwise. If this were not the case, writing would contain nothing of value. Autobiographies typically serve to inform the reader about the life of a specific person, yet, in Confessions, Augustine of Hippo displays loftier aims. Among other goals, he attempts to use his life story to indirectly guide others to God and truth, an objective to which he applies his considerable literary skill. Often famous historical icons seem to tower in the public eye, casting a shadow of influence that only increases through the ages; they seem somehow more than human. St. Augustine is just such a figure, yet his simple, candid commentary of his life in Confessions paints him as an ordinary man. Augustine went to great lengths to achieve this image, especially in the commencement of his narration. He begins by hyperbolizing his sin even in childhood stating, â€Å"At the time of my infancy, I must have acted reprehensibly† (Augustine 9), and continues this pattern of self-degradation throughout, not out of false humility, but to prove to his audience that he was not born a saint. Augustine spends greater time than necessary covering his ‘sin’ of stealing pears (Augustine 29-34), an act that most would consider a childish prank, and his sexual desires (in which he certainly was not the greatest sinner of his time) not only to explore the nature of transgression b ut also to build his reputation (or lack of it) with his reader (Augustine 24-28). Later in the narrative he describes what most would view as a moral triumph: I also recall how, when I had decided to enter for a poetry competition at the theatre, a soothsayer of some sort sent to ask what fee I would give him to ensure victory. But I replied that I hated and abominated those vile mysteries, and that even if the crown were immortal and made of gold, I would not allow a fly to be killed to bring about my success. For in his mysteries he would be going to kill animals, and by offering these creatures in honour of daemons, his intention was to gain their support for my winning. (Augustine 53-54) He then proceeds to condemn his intentions saying, â€Å"I refused sacrifice to daemons on my behalf; yet by adherence to that superstition I sacrificed myself to them† (Augustine 54).

Essay --

The Importance of the Mayflower Compact The Mayflower Compact was written as a temporary form of government due to the unfair treatment that was endured by some of the Mayflower occupants. They also felt that the order should come from someone of much higher authority i.e. the king. The colonists were also unruly due to the lack of government; therefore some of the colonist thought they could do what they preferred. But by signing of the Mayflower Compact, did put the end to all the unrest while aboard the Mayflower. After John Smith landed at Plymouth, they felt they had landed at a place that was not controlled by London (the king). The mayflower carried a hundred and two passengers. They had travelled about 3,000 miles only to land north of their destination. They had hoped to begin a colony out of the mouth of the Hudson River the site of today’s New York City. This would have placed the colony within the geographic boundaries the king outlined in the Virginia Company of Plymouth’s charter. Some group of businessmen invested money to start the colony. In return they hoped to profit from the products of the New World. The company’s charter outlined how the settlement would be governed. But the Mayflower’s passengers had drifted outside the charter’s boundaries. Now they were off the ship of Cape Cod on November 9 1620, with no laws to govern them. The passengers list showed that the colonists needed to create a government. Out of the hundred and two passengers’ fourth-one were pilgrims seeking a place they could practice their religion. They had separated from the Church of England over religious differences. The pilgrims had lived for a time in Holland, now they hoped to make a new start. Basically these pilgrims need... ...Bradford's nephew" in New England's Memorial (1669). The three versions had a difference in the wording, spelling, capitalizing and punctuation. The compact created the idea of a social contact. A social contract is an actual or hypothetical compact between the ruled and their rules that defines the rights and duties of each. Although specific duties were not assigned to each colonist, a concept of higher order was established by the election of the first governor of the New Plymouth. It was not until the American Revolution that the Mayflower Compact received much attention. At this time the new nation began looking back to the roots of this self-government. Today the compact is often viewed as the first example of the American democracy as a social contract. But it is also understood that idea come from the practical need for unity to service in the wildness.

The Possible Mechanisms of Scrapie Contraction Essay -- Biology Medica

The Possible Mechanisms of Scrapie Contraction Scrapie was first discovered in Great Britain in the late 1900’s. The first case of scrapie in the United States was found in Michigan in 1947 when the flock owner had imported sheep of British origin several years prior. Since then scientists have researched to find the cause of the scrapie agent that are classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. At the present, scientists have presented three main theories that explain why the scrapie agent holds a dangerous threat against its host and how it elicits its symptoms. Scientists are finding genetic alternatives to prevent and dampen the spread of scrapie within sheep and goat flocks. They use methods such as tatoing and genetic selection to regulate animals exposure to the pathogen. Scrapie is defined as a fatal, degenerative disease affecting the central nervous system of sheep and goats. It is widely feared because of its uncertain origin and therefore its seemingly incurable status. It is closely related and often associated with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE; also known as â€Å"Mad Cow† disease), as well Chronic Wasting Disease (found in deer and elk) all of which are classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. (Q&A. July 2005 http://www.animalagriculture.org/scrapie/AboutScrapie/QandA.htm) Scrapie is usually transmitted from the mother to her baby sheep or goats, through the placenta or the placental fluids. Animals infected with scrapie experience the symptoms and effects of the disease after two to five years post infection. Scrapie can be transmitted to susceptible sheep and goats through contact with the placenta and placental fluids of infected animals. There has been no evidence of human trans... ...entists alike are trying to make up new procedures of prevention to dampen the further spread of scrapie throughout the population of sheep and goats. Such measures taken to prevent the spread of scrapie include the genetic-based flock clean up plan. Here, genetic selection is used as the primary means of scrapie regulation. The United State s Department of Agriculture’s Animal Plant Health Inspection Service is using genetic testing to determine which exposed animals must be removed or restricted in affected flocks and which are free to move unrestricted. This genetic clean up plan calls for the removal or restriction of all exposed susceptible sheep and goats as well as a five-year cycle of strict monitoring for the breeding of all the livestock (The Genetics of Scrapie Susceptibility. July 26 2005: http://www.aphis.usda/gov/us/nahps/scrapie/scrapie_genetics.pdf).

The hunger games book review

Catkins Overseen, along side fellow tribute PETA Mallard, is forced to fight for her life against stronger competitors from wealthier districts, some of whom have trained for this their whole lives. If Catkins Is going to win then Catkins will need to kill everyone In the games. The only question Is, are the odds ever In her favor? I personally admire the way that Catkins would willingly take her sister's place In the Ames, when there is a one in a million chance that she could win.The author has truly grasped the idea of what it's like to be in a situation like Catkins' – no father, a mother that's stuck in the past, and a 13-year-old sister that needs looking after. I was compelled after hearing about the games in the story. The whole prospect Just made me shatter with excitement. It's a very unusual and out-of-the ordinary plot for a book, but I think that its originality is what makes it Just that bit better than your tankard teen fiction.I think that the author's use of d escriptive techniques, Like personification, was extremely noticeable because of Its effectiveness on the story. Overall, I really enjoyed the book and highly recommend to those who love teen fiction or Just enjoy the adrenaline rush. Good Job Suzanne Collins, and I would definitely read it again. The hunger games book review By Halley Halley Karri AAA In The Future North America, known as ‘Panel', there is a rich and modern developed City named ‘The Capitol'. The hunger games book review Catkins Overseen, along side fellow tribute PETA Mallard, is forced to fight for her life against stronger competitors from wealthier districts, some of whom have trained for this their whole lives. If Catkins Is going to win then Catkins will need to kill everyone In the games. The only question Is, are the odds ever In her favor? I personally admire the way that Catkins would willingly take her sister's place In the Ames, when there is a one in a million chance that she could win.The author has truly grasped the idea of what it's like to be in a situation like Catkins' – no father, a mother that's stuck in the past, and a 13-year-old sister that needs looking after. I was compelled after hearing about the games in the story. The whole prospect Just made me shatter with excitement. It's a very unusual and out-of-the ordinary plot for a book, but I think that its originality is what makes it Just that bit better than your tankard teen fiction.I think that the author's use of d escriptive techniques, Like personification, was extremely noticeable because of Its effectiveness on the story. Overall, I really enjoyed the book and highly recommend to those who love teen fiction or Just enjoy the adrenaline rush. Good Job Suzanne Collins, and I would definitely read it again. The hunger games book review By Halley Halley Karri AAA In The Future North America, known as ‘Panel', there is a rich and modern developed City named ‘The Capitol'. The hunger games book review Catkins Overseen, along side fellow tribute PETA Mallard, is forced to fight for her life against stronger competitors from wealthier districts, some of whom have trained for this their whole lives. If Catkins Is going to win then Catkins will need to kill everyone In the games. The only question Is, are the odds ever In her favor? I personally admire the way that Catkins would willingly take her sister's place In the Ames, when there is a one in a million chance that she could win.The author has truly grasped the idea of what it's like to be in a situation like Catkins' – no father, a mother that's stuck in the past, and a 13-year-old sister that needs looking after. I was compelled after hearing about the games in the story. The whole prospect Just made me shatter with excitement. It's a very unusual and out-of-the ordinary plot for a book, but I think that its originality is what makes it Just that bit better than your tankard teen fiction.I think that the author's use of d escriptive techniques, Like personification, was extremely noticeable because of Its effectiveness on the story. Overall, I really enjoyed the book and highly recommend to those who love teen fiction or Just enjoy the adrenaline rush. Good Job Suzanne Collins, and I would definitely read it again. The hunger games book review By Halley Halley Karri AAA In The Future North America, known as ‘Panel', there is a rich and modern developed City named ‘The Capitol'.

Against School: A Corrupted System

The educational systems purpose is to prepare people with the necessary skills and knowledge so that they can excel and function properly in today’s society. John T. Gatto challenges that idea and begs the question is 12 compulsory years of standard schooling consisting of six classes a day, five days a week, nine months a year needed? Gatto refers to George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln as they were not formally schooled and yet were very successful. According to Gatto’s, there are three main purposes to formal schooling, â€Å"1) To make good people, 2) To make good citizens, and 3) to make each person his or her best. † (Gatto 3) Gatto believes that the current educational system actually contradicts these three ideals. He claims that there are six basic yet specific functions that intend to hold back and limit the progress and overall success of a student. Of the six functions there are three serve specifically to limit and hinder a students progress. The diagnostic and directive functions, the differentiating function, and the propaedeutic function all seemingly serve to cripple a students success but when analyzed some do hold some truth but in the end they are merely irrational and ridiculous accusations made by Gatto. The diagnostic and directive functions are defined as a litmus test to test where a particular student â€Å"fits† in society based on grade percentages. These percentages are logged and stored permanently in our student records which are then passed on the post secondary schools to place students in their â€Å"proper societal roles† (4). During my freshman and sophomore years in high school I can not help but remember teachers classifying â€Å"ap† students and high academic achievers as those who were going to be â€Å"successful†. My math teacher often referred to more difficult questions as the â€Å"doctor† or â€Å"lawyer† question in an attempt to scale the difficultly of the question. What if one can not do the question? Does that mean that person should be classified as remedial or can not attain the success of a doctor or lawyer? Of course not, the simple idea of that is completely irrational. However, once reassessing and making them less extreme, Gatto’s diagnostic and directive functions can be found anywhere in the academic system whether it be perquisite knowledge for grade twelve programs or university entrance. While this function may seem absurd, Gatto’s differentiating function is one that can be related to actual everyday life. The differentiating function is a more practical function. It states that, â€Å"once a student’s role has been â€Å"diagnosed† through standardized testing, they are to be sorted by role, and trained only so far as their destination in the social machine merits. † (5) The functions practical use is especially seen in post secondary schooling where a more refined and â€Å"specialized training† takes place. We see this in any standard entry test for a specific program such as the SAT, LSAT or MCAT. Based on a students performance on these forms of testing they are then place in their respective programs allow them to focus specifically on areas of study that are important to them. At my old high school there was a standard entry test, SSAT, that examined various categories of schooling (math, reading, writing etc†¦) Depending on how you did on the test would determine not only whether or not you are eligible for acceptance but whether or not you qualify to take ap courses, because if u do not posses the proper knowledge taking a more advanced course would be counter-productive and in fact hurt your academic career. Once one has analyzed the differentiating function there is some truth to it but when one looks at the propaedeutic function, it is completely incorrect. The propaedeutic function is completely incorrect and misleading. According to Gatto, the purpose of the propaedeutic is to create a class of â€Å"elite caretakers †¦ taught to manage this project, how to watch over and control a population deliberately dumbed down and declawed† (5) He’s saying that those who already control the population are going to educate children so that when they grow up they can control the population and train more children to do the same. At this point it seems like Gatto is trying to throw something that is completely and utterly irrational out there trying to catch people off guard and hope to attract some followers. The simple thought that people were training young children to know how to manipulate people in such a way that they simply do not challenge authority and do exactly as their told to is ridiculous. At no point in my life have I ever felt that someone or an organization is trying to limit my personal abilities to comply with this absurd function. Teachers constantly enthuse student to be all they can and achieve as high as they can, not that its ok if u cant because we already got it figured out. While other of Gatto’s functions may have held some truth this particular function is completely incorrect Gatto believes that those who control the way society runs are trying to create a norm in the educational system. That student’s are pre-destined before they are given the ample chance to excel and achieve. Gatto explains that schools traditionally have three purposes: 1) To make good people; 2) To make good citizens; 3) To make each student find some particular talents to develop as best they can. These are all fine standards but because of government schools have become prison like even in there cell block style construction. Gatto’s approach is very liberal and has opened my eyes to certain matters especially the way that educational system is poorly constructed (with it being bases on grades) and how it is mismanaged leading to sub-par performance and disappointing â€Å"success† rates. It is this poorly constructed system and a corrupted way of running it is what I think Gatto was truly trying to revile.

Consumer Buying Behavior †Marketing to teenagers Essay

Topic: Consumer Buying Behavior – Marketing to teenagers Article Summary: This article states that although only two percent of teenagers are smokers; fifty percent of tobacco companies marketing monies go to targeting teenagers. The author feels that the big tobacco companies target teenagers to help make up for those who ultimately die from tobacco related illnesses or realize on later in life that they need to stop smoking. It goes on to say that for every one person who dies from tobacco-related causes, two new smokers under the age of twenty-six start the habit. Although the Joe Camel cartoon advertising has since been removed, when that particular character was created the sales of Camel increased thirty-four percent in kids showing that campaign had an impact on who they were targeting and who began to purchase their product. The author goes on to say how impressionable teenagers and children are, as opposed to adults, and how stopping the tobacco use is not easy to do. Once someone starts it is a hard habit to break. Many of those who start smoking at an early age become addicted to the product before they are even of legal age to purchase the product. Even the warnings on the boxes are not enough to keep the young consumers from purchasing the product. Class Application: Cigarette companies need to market to the proper consumer market. A consumer market is purchasers and household members who intend to consume or benefit from the purchased product. By Camel advertising in  magazines, using â€Å"fun† cartoon characters, and also making tobacco use look cool, they are not targeting the proper market. Being sure to market cigarettes to those who are legally allowed to use the product is a must. They can still use a differentiated targeting strategy and market to those in different demographics, but they need to be sure to leave out those who are not legal to use the product. Cigarette companies should be using demographic segmentation variables to come up with ad campaigns geared towards the proper segments. With cigarettes, the companies have to focus on age since there is a legal age for smoking. Also, since cigarettes have been proven to be unhealthy and cause of cancer, among other things, they are not something that sho uld be advertised to children or teenagers; no matter what.